Alhambra and Chess strategy: Difference between pages
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One of the charms of the game of [[chess]] is the interplay between tactics and strategy. ''Tactics'' refers to "tricks" or "combinations" that achieve material advantage or checkmate in a couple of moves, ''strategy'' refers to long-term planning and the proper placement of the pieces on the board in the absense of any short-term opportunities. |
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The <b>Alhambra</b> is an ancient palace and fortress of the Moorish monarchs of [[Granada]], in southern [[Spain]], occupying a hilly terrace on the south-eastern border of the city of Granada. This terrace or plateau, which measures about 2430 ft. in length by 674 ft. at its greatest width, extends from W.N.W. to |
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E.S.E., and covers an area of about 35 acres. It is enclosed by a strongly fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen towers. The river [[Darro]], which foams through a deep ravine on the north, divides the plateau from the Albaicin district of Granada; the Assabica valley, containing the Alhambra Park, on |
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the west and south, and beyond this valley the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror, separate it from the Antequeruela district. |
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In describing tactics and strategy, we will be using the algebraic notation for squares on the [[Chess/Board|chess board]]. |
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=== History === |
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== Tactics == |
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The name Alhambra, signifying in Arabic "the red," is probably derived from the colour of the sun-dried tapia, |
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or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of which the outer walls are built. Some authorities, however, hold that it commemorates the red flare of the torches by whose light the work of construction was carried on nightly for many years; others associate it with the name of the founder, Mahomet Ibn Al Ahmar; and others derive it from the Arabic Dar al Amra, "House of the Master." (For an account of the period to which the Alhambra belongs, see [[Granada]]. The palace was built chiefly between [[1248]] and [[1354]], in the reigns |
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of Al Ahmar and his successors; but even the names of the principal artists employed are either unknown or doubtful. |
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==== Values of the pieces ==== |
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The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to Yusef I, who died in [[1354]]. Immediately after the expulsion of the Moors in [[1492]], their conquerors began, by successive acts of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of the Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, torn or removed. [[Charles V]] (1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the modern |
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style of the period, and destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for a modern structure which has never been completed. [[Philip V]] (1700-1746) Italianised the rooms, and completed the degradation by running up partitions which blocked up whole apartments, gems of taste and patient ingenuity. |
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In subsequent centuries the carelessness of the Spanish authorities permitted this masterpiece of Moorish |
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art to be still further defaced; and in [[1812]] some of the towers were blown up by the French under [[Count Sebastiani]], while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the same fate. |
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Since one objective of tactics is to obtain material advantage, one first needs to understand the values of the pieces. |
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In [[1821]] an earthquake caused further damage. The work of restoration undertaken in [[1828]] by the architect Jose Contreras was endowed in 1830 by [[Ferdinand VII]].; and after the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair success by his son Rafael (d. 1890), and his grandson Mariano. |
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A [[Chess/Knight|knight]] is about as valuable as a [[Chess/Bishop|bishop]], but less so than a [[Chess/Rook|rook]]. Three [[Chess/Pawn|pawns]] will overpower a knight in the endgame, but in the middlegame a knight is often more powerful. A knight and a bishop are stronger than a single rook. Two rooks are stronger than a [[Chess/Queen|queen]], but not by much. One commonly used simple scoring system is 1 point for a pawn, 3 for a knight or bishop, 5 for a rook, and 9 for a queen. Under a system like this, giving up a knight or bishop in order to win a rook ("winning the exchange") is advantageous and values about two pawns. |
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=== |
==== Forks ==== |
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A fork is a move that uses one piece to attacks two of the opponent's pieces at the same time, thereby achieving material advantage. Knights are often used for forks: they jump to a position from where they attack two pieces. A quite common situation is a white knight jumping to c7, thereby threating both the rook at a8 and the king at e8. |
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The situation of the Alhambra is one of rare natural beauty; the plateau commands a wide view of the city and plain of Granada, towards the west and north, and of the heights of the Sierra Nevada, towards the east and south. Moorish poets describe it as "a pearl set in emeralds," in allusion to the brilliant colour of its buildings, and the luxuriant woods round them. The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), which in spring is overgrown with wild-flowers and grass, was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges and myrtles; |
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Pawns can also fork enemy pieces: by moving a pawn forward, it may attack two pieces: one diagonally to the left and one diagonally to the right. A common situation is the move Pawn d2-d4 forking a black bishop at c5 and a black knight at e5. |
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its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense wood of [[English elm]]s brought hither in [[1812]] by the [[Duke of Wellington]]. The park is celebrated for the multitude of its [[nightingale]]s, and is usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 5 m. long, which is connected with the Darro at the monastery of [[Jesus del Valle]], above Granada. |
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A queen move also often attacks two pieces at the same time, but this is only useful if both pieces are undefended. |
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In spite of the long neglect, wilful vandalism and ill-judged restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains the most perfect example of Moorish art in its final European development, --freed from the direct Byzantine influences which can be traced in the cathedral of Cordova, more elaborate and fantastic than the [[Giralda]] at [[Seville]]. The majority of the palace buildings are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with all the rooms opening on to a central court; and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages. In every case the exterior is left plain and austere, as if the architect intended thus to heighten by contrast the splendour of the interior. Within, the palace is unsurpassed for the exquisite detail of its marble pillars and arches, its fretted ceilings and the veil-like transparency of its filigree work in stucco. Sun and wind are freely admitted, and the whole effect is one of the most airy lightness and grace. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through |
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lapse of time and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed. |
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==== Pins ==== |
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The decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional foliage, Arabic inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought into arabesques of almost incredible intricacy and ingenuity. Painted tiles are largely used as panelling for the walls. |
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A pin is a move which forces one of the opponent's pieces to stay put because moving it would expose a more valuable piece behind it. Bishops and rooks can pin other pieces. A pin that often occurs in openings is the move Bishop b5 which pins the knight on c6, because moving the knight would expose the king on e8 to a check. A common way to win the queen is to pin her to the king with a rook, for instance with a white rook on e1, the black queen on e7 and the black king on e8. |
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==== Zwischenzug ==== |
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The German ''Zwischenzug'' means "intermediate move"; it is a common tactic that occurs in almost every game: instead of countering a direct threat, which the opponent expects, a move is played which poses an even more devastating threat, usually an attack against the queen or the king. The opponent has to counter that threat first, and this will ideally change the situation to his disadvantage. |
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The Moorish portion of the Alhambra resembles many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a palace and a residential annexe for subordinates. The Alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau on the north-west. Only its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts are left. On its watch-tower, the Torre de la Vela, 85 ft. high, the flag of [[Ferdinand and Isabella]] was first raised, in token of the Spanish conquest of Granada, on the [[2nd of January]] [[1492]]. A turret containing a huge bell was added in the 18th century, and restored after being injured by lightning in [[1881]]. Beyond the Alcazaba is the palace of the Moorish kings, or Alhambra properly so-called; and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), originally tenanted by officials and courtiers. |
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When you plan your tactics, you should always watch out for a ''Zwischenzug''. Don't assume that the opponent has to counter your threats immediately. It is a good practice to always check whether your opponent has a check or a move that threatens your queen. Conversely, anticipate your opponents threats and plan a surprising ''Zwischenzug''. |
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Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a massive triumphal arch dating from the [[15th century]]. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V., a fountain erected in [[1554]], to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta Judiciaria (Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway, surmounted by a square tower, and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. A hand, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino |
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(Wine Tower), built in [[1345]], and used in the 16th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V.]], a cold-looking but majestic [[Renaissance]] building, out of harmony with its surroundings, which it tends somewhat to dwarf by its superior size. Its construction, begun in [[1526]], was abandoned about [[1650]]. |
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==== Sacrifices ==== |
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The present entrance to the Palacio Arabe, or Casa Real (Moorish palace), is by a small door from which a corridor conducts to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Moorish birka, "pond," or berka, "blessing." This court is 140 ft. long by 74 ft. broad; and in the centre there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; that |
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on the south 27 ft. high, and supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this court the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north, and reflected in the pond. |
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Often it is necessary to throw the opponent's position out of balance by first sacrificing some material, to be regained with interest a couple of moves later. Pawn sacrifices in the opening are known as ''gambits''; they are usually not intended for material short-term gain but instead to achieve a more active position. |
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The Sala de los Ambajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 37 ft. in length, while the centre of the dome is 75 ft. high. This was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The tiles are nearly 4 ft. high all round, and the colours vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are nine windows, three |
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on each facade, and the ceiling is admirably diversified with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape of circles, crowns and stars--a kind of imitation of the vault of heaven. The walls are covered with varied stucco-work of most delicate pattern, surrounding many ancient escutcheons. |
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Direct attacks against the enemy [[Chess/King|king]] are often started by sacrifices; a common example is a bishop sacrificing itself on h7, checking the king on g8 who has to take the bishop, after which the white queen and knight develop a fulminant attack. |
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The celebrated Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an oblong court, 116 ft. in length by 66 ft. in breadth, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and light domed roof, elaborately ornamented. The square is paved with coloured tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls are covered 5 ft. up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed, with a view to artistic effect; and the general form of the piers, arches and pillars is most graceful. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; |
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about each arch there is a large square of [[arabesque]]s; and over the pillars is another square of exquisite filigree work. In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and courage. |
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==== Attacks against the king ==== |
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The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives its name from a legend according to which Boabdil, the last king of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious line to a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two very beautiful white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement. These slabs measure 15 ft. by 7 1/2 ft., and are without flaw or stain. There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof--a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to number 5000--is a magnificent |
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example of the so-called "stalactite vaulting" of the Moors. |
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Attacks against the castled king are usually justified by some imbalance: you have more firepower on the king's side than your opponent, or the opponent weakened his king's position by moving one of the pawns in front of the king. |
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Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Sala de la Justicia (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule), and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), in which are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful architecture, the same costly and elegant decorations. The palace and the Upper Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and summer- |
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rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres. |
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Many mating attacks are introduced by sacrifices: if mate is the goal, material doesn't matter anymore. The queen is almost always the most important piece in a mating attack, since she has various ways of mating a king. The most common of which is a direct "contact check" while being protected by one of her own pieces, for instance white knight g5, black king on g8 and the queen mates at h7, or white bishop at f6 or h6 and the white queen on g7 mates the black king on g8. |
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The original furniture of the palace is represented by the celebrated vase of the Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish ceramic art, dating from [[1320]], and belonging to the first period of Moorish porcelain. It is 4 ft. 3 in. high; the ground is white, and the enamelling is blue, white and gold. |
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Don't assume that every move in a mating attack has to be a check. Often, a check just drives the king to a better position, or weakens your own setup. Try to find "quiet" moves which seal the deal. |
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Of the outlying buildings in connexion with the Alhambra, the foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife (the Moorish Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif," or "Garden of the Architect"). This villa probably dates from the end of the 13th century, but has been several times restored. Its |
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gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moorish character. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were employed to build the Alhambra, and confined here in subterranean cells. The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in [[1829]] and [[1857]] at the base of Monte Mauror. |
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== Strategy == |
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Initial text from 1911 encyclopedia -- Please update as needed |
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==== Opening ==== |
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For beginners, it is not helpful to memorize opening moves; instead, by following a handful of principles, one can quite easily achieve a decent position for the middle game. |
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The most important part of the board is the center (e4, d4, e5, d5). It is important to place pawns in the center or to control it in some other way. Another major goal of the opening is to move the king away from the dangerous center and achieve castling. Every move should contribute to these goals and one should avoid losing time by making useless moves such as h7-h6. The white knights are usually developed to c3 and f3. The queen should avoid moving too early and too far into enemy territory, because otherwise the opponent will be able to gain time by playing developing moves which at the same time threaten the queen. Once castling has been achieved, the remaining bishops and knights should be developed so that the rooks on the first row become connected and can operate more effectively. This usually ends the opening phase of the game. |
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==== Space ==== |
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All other things being equal, the side which controls more space on the board has an advantage. More space translates into more options, which can be exploited both tactically and strategically. So if all your pieces are developed and you don't see any tactical tricks, try to find a move which will enlarge your influence, particularly in the center. |
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==== Knights ==== |
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Knights are easily chased away with pawn moves. Therefore it is important to spot "holes" in the enemy position where a knight cannot be attacked, because the pawns have already moved past. Once such a hole is identified, a knight should be maneuvered to that location. An unchallengable knight on the fifth row is a strong asset, and a supported knight on the sixth row usually decides the game. |
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Unless there is a good reason for it, knights shouldn't be placed at the borders (and never in the corners) of the board, because there they control far less squares and can often be captured. |
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==== Pawns ==== |
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Pawns are most powerful if they come in groups on contiguous files. Isolated pawns, those without pawns on adjacent files, are often weak and also provide a nice spot for an enemy knight ahead of them. If your opponent has an isolated pawn, first try to block it by placing a piece ahead of it, and then attack it with rooks. The same should be done with opponent's pawns that were "left behind", meaning that the pawns on the neighboring files have already advanced. |
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Two pawns of the same color on the same file are called ''double pawns''; they are weak, especially so if they are also isolated, because they cannot protect each other and because they hinder each other's advancement. |
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In the endgame, "passed pawns", those which cannot be hindered by enemy pawns from promotion, are strong, especially if they are advanced. A passed pawn on the sixth row is roughly as strong as a knight or bishop and will often decide the game. |
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==== Bishops ==== |
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A bishop always stays on squares the color it was born on. This is not a big concern if you still have both bishops, but once one of them is gone, you should keep in mind that you now have a hard time attacking or defending squares of the wrong color. If you have only one bishop left, you typically want to move your pawns to squares of the other color so that they don't block the bishop and so that the enemy pawns are stuck on the right color and can be attacked. |
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If you don't see a good square for development of a bishop, you can consider a ''fianchetto'': pawn g2-g3 and bishop f1-g2. This forms a strong defense for the castled king on g1 and the bishop can often exert pressure on the long diagonal h1-a8. |
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After a fianchetto, you should not give up the bishop too easily, because then the holes around the king can easily prove fatal. |
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To decide whether in a given position a knight or a bishop is more powerful, several aspects have to be taken into account: if the game is "closed" with lots of interlocked pawn formations, the knight will be stronger, because it can hop over the pawns while the bishop is blocked by them. A bishop is also weak if it is permanently blocked by his own pawns, which are arrested on the wrong color. In an open game with action on both sides of the board, the bishop will be stronger because of its long range. This is especially true in the endgame, if passed pawns race on opposite sides of the board: the bishop will always win over the knight here. |
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An endgame in which both parties have bishops living on different colors is almost always drawn, even if one side is two pawns ahead. |
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==== Rooks ==== |
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Rooks are most powerful on half-open files, i.e. files which don't contain pawns of your own color. They are also useful on open files without any pawns in order to penetrate into enemy territory (most likely to the seventh row). |
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In the endgame, if you have a passed pawn which is a candidate for promotion, the rook belongs behind the pawn to support its advance. |
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==== King ==== |
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During the middle game, the king mostly stays in a corner behind his pawns. Moving these pawns should be avoided because that weakens the king's position. However, as the rooks leave the first row, there is a danger of an enemy rook invading the first row and mating the king, so sometimes it is necessary to move one of the pawns in front of the king to counter these mate threats. |
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In the endgame, the king becomes a strong piece. With reduced material, mate is not an immediate concern anymore, and the king should be moved towards the center of the board. |
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==== Defending pieces ==== |
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In general, it is a good idea to defend your pieces, even if they are not currently attacked. This way, many tactical tricks of the opponent won't work. Conversely, if you spot undefended pieces of the opponent, you should think about exploiting the situation with a tactical combination. |
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==== The Endgame ==== |
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Once most pieces have been exchanged off the board, it becomes impossible to mount direct attacks on the King. In this situation, the focus of the game switches to attempting to bring a pawn to the eighth rank and promote it to Queen, whilst preventing one's opponent from doing so. The promoted queen, provided it is not immediately captured by the opponent, is enough to ensure a certain win. |
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Sometimes, all pawns will be eliminated from the board and one player will be left with a King and some combinations of rooks, knights and bishops against a lone King. It is quite straightforward to force a win with a king and rook. A king and two bishops is also enough to force a win, but it requires a bit more skill, even more so in the case of a king, bishop and knight. A king and two knights, or a king and one minor piece, is not enough to force a win and thus the game will be declared a draw. |
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---- |
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'''Further reading:''' |
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* John Nunn: ''Understanding Chess move by move'', Gambit 2001. A top players explains the thinking behind every single move of several master class games. |
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* Jeremy Silman: ''The Amateur's Mind: Turning Chess Misconceptions into Chess Mastery'', Siles Press 1999. A chess teacher analyzes and corrects the thinking of advanced beginners. |
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Revision as of 19:53, 28 January 2002
One of the charms of the game of chess is the interplay between tactics and strategy. Tactics refers to "tricks" or "combinations" that achieve material advantage or checkmate in a couple of moves, strategy refers to long-term planning and the proper placement of the pieces on the board in the absense of any short-term opportunities.
In describing tactics and strategy, we will be using the algebraic notation for squares on the chess board.
Tactics
Values of the pieces
Since one objective of tactics is to obtain material advantage, one first needs to understand the values of the pieces. A knight is about as valuable as a bishop, but less so than a rook. Three pawns will overpower a knight in the endgame, but in the middlegame a knight is often more powerful. A knight and a bishop are stronger than a single rook. Two rooks are stronger than a queen, but not by much. One commonly used simple scoring system is 1 point for a pawn, 3 for a knight or bishop, 5 for a rook, and 9 for a queen. Under a system like this, giving up a knight or bishop in order to win a rook ("winning the exchange") is advantageous and values about two pawns.
Forks
A fork is a move that uses one piece to attacks two of the opponent's pieces at the same time, thereby achieving material advantage. Knights are often used for forks: they jump to a position from where they attack two pieces. A quite common situation is a white knight jumping to c7, thereby threating both the rook at a8 and the king at e8. Pawns can also fork enemy pieces: by moving a pawn forward, it may attack two pieces: one diagonally to the left and one diagonally to the right. A common situation is the move Pawn d2-d4 forking a black bishop at c5 and a black knight at e5.
A queen move also often attacks two pieces at the same time, but this is only useful if both pieces are undefended.
Pins
A pin is a move which forces one of the opponent's pieces to stay put because moving it would expose a more valuable piece behind it. Bishops and rooks can pin other pieces. A pin that often occurs in openings is the move Bishop b5 which pins the knight on c6, because moving the knight would expose the king on e8 to a check. A common way to win the queen is to pin her to the king with a rook, for instance with a white rook on e1, the black queen on e7 and the black king on e8.
Zwischenzug
The German Zwischenzug means "intermediate move"; it is a common tactic that occurs in almost every game: instead of countering a direct threat, which the opponent expects, a move is played which poses an even more devastating threat, usually an attack against the queen or the king. The opponent has to counter that threat first, and this will ideally change the situation to his disadvantage.
When you plan your tactics, you should always watch out for a Zwischenzug. Don't assume that the opponent has to counter your threats immediately. It is a good practice to always check whether your opponent has a check or a move that threatens your queen. Conversely, anticipate your opponents threats and plan a surprising Zwischenzug.
Sacrifices
Often it is necessary to throw the opponent's position out of balance by first sacrificing some material, to be regained with interest a couple of moves later. Pawn sacrifices in the opening are known as gambits; they are usually not intended for material short-term gain but instead to achieve a more active position.
Direct attacks against the enemy king are often started by sacrifices; a common example is a bishop sacrificing itself on h7, checking the king on g8 who has to take the bishop, after which the white queen and knight develop a fulminant attack.
Attacks against the king
Attacks against the castled king are usually justified by some imbalance: you have more firepower on the king's side than your opponent, or the opponent weakened his king's position by moving one of the pawns in front of the king.
Many mating attacks are introduced by sacrifices: if mate is the goal, material doesn't matter anymore. The queen is almost always the most important piece in a mating attack, since she has various ways of mating a king. The most common of which is a direct "contact check" while being protected by one of her own pieces, for instance white knight g5, black king on g8 and the queen mates at h7, or white bishop at f6 or h6 and the white queen on g7 mates the black king on g8.
Don't assume that every move in a mating attack has to be a check. Often, a check just drives the king to a better position, or weakens your own setup. Try to find "quiet" moves which seal the deal.
Strategy
Opening
For beginners, it is not helpful to memorize opening moves; instead, by following a handful of principles, one can quite easily achieve a decent position for the middle game.
The most important part of the board is the center (e4, d4, e5, d5). It is important to place pawns in the center or to control it in some other way. Another major goal of the opening is to move the king away from the dangerous center and achieve castling. Every move should contribute to these goals and one should avoid losing time by making useless moves such as h7-h6. The white knights are usually developed to c3 and f3. The queen should avoid moving too early and too far into enemy territory, because otherwise the opponent will be able to gain time by playing developing moves which at the same time threaten the queen. Once castling has been achieved, the remaining bishops and knights should be developed so that the rooks on the first row become connected and can operate more effectively. This usually ends the opening phase of the game.
Space
All other things being equal, the side which controls more space on the board has an advantage. More space translates into more options, which can be exploited both tactically and strategically. So if all your pieces are developed and you don't see any tactical tricks, try to find a move which will enlarge your influence, particularly in the center.
Knights
Knights are easily chased away with pawn moves. Therefore it is important to spot "holes" in the enemy position where a knight cannot be attacked, because the pawns have already moved past. Once such a hole is identified, a knight should be maneuvered to that location. An unchallengable knight on the fifth row is a strong asset, and a supported knight on the sixth row usually decides the game.
Unless there is a good reason for it, knights shouldn't be placed at the borders (and never in the corners) of the board, because there they control far less squares and can often be captured.
Pawns
Pawns are most powerful if they come in groups on contiguous files. Isolated pawns, those without pawns on adjacent files, are often weak and also provide a nice spot for an enemy knight ahead of them. If your opponent has an isolated pawn, first try to block it by placing a piece ahead of it, and then attack it with rooks. The same should be done with opponent's pawns that were "left behind", meaning that the pawns on the neighboring files have already advanced.
Two pawns of the same color on the same file are called double pawns; they are weak, especially so if they are also isolated, because they cannot protect each other and because they hinder each other's advancement.
In the endgame, "passed pawns", those which cannot be hindered by enemy pawns from promotion, are strong, especially if they are advanced. A passed pawn on the sixth row is roughly as strong as a knight or bishop and will often decide the game.
Bishops
A bishop always stays on squares the color it was born on. This is not a big concern if you still have both bishops, but once one of them is gone, you should keep in mind that you now have a hard time attacking or defending squares of the wrong color. If you have only one bishop left, you typically want to move your pawns to squares of the other color so that they don't block the bishop and so that the enemy pawns are stuck on the right color and can be attacked.
If you don't see a good square for development of a bishop, you can consider a fianchetto: pawn g2-g3 and bishop f1-g2. This forms a strong defense for the castled king on g1 and the bishop can often exert pressure on the long diagonal h1-a8. After a fianchetto, you should not give up the bishop too easily, because then the holes around the king can easily prove fatal.
To decide whether in a given position a knight or a bishop is more powerful, several aspects have to be taken into account: if the game is "closed" with lots of interlocked pawn formations, the knight will be stronger, because it can hop over the pawns while the bishop is blocked by them. A bishop is also weak if it is permanently blocked by his own pawns, which are arrested on the wrong color. In an open game with action on both sides of the board, the bishop will be stronger because of its long range. This is especially true in the endgame, if passed pawns race on opposite sides of the board: the bishop will always win over the knight here.
An endgame in which both parties have bishops living on different colors is almost always drawn, even if one side is two pawns ahead.
Rooks
Rooks are most powerful on half-open files, i.e. files which don't contain pawns of your own color. They are also useful on open files without any pawns in order to penetrate into enemy territory (most likely to the seventh row).
In the endgame, if you have a passed pawn which is a candidate for promotion, the rook belongs behind the pawn to support its advance.
King
During the middle game, the king mostly stays in a corner behind his pawns. Moving these pawns should be avoided because that weakens the king's position. However, as the rooks leave the first row, there is a danger of an enemy rook invading the first row and mating the king, so sometimes it is necessary to move one of the pawns in front of the king to counter these mate threats.
In the endgame, the king becomes a strong piece. With reduced material, mate is not an immediate concern anymore, and the king should be moved towards the center of the board.
Defending pieces
In general, it is a good idea to defend your pieces, even if they are not currently attacked. This way, many tactical tricks of the opponent won't work. Conversely, if you spot undefended pieces of the opponent, you should think about exploiting the situation with a tactical combination.
The Endgame
Once most pieces have been exchanged off the board, it becomes impossible to mount direct attacks on the King. In this situation, the focus of the game switches to attempting to bring a pawn to the eighth rank and promote it to Queen, whilst preventing one's opponent from doing so. The promoted queen, provided it is not immediately captured by the opponent, is enough to ensure a certain win.
Sometimes, all pawns will be eliminated from the board and one player will be left with a King and some combinations of rooks, knights and bishops against a lone King. It is quite straightforward to force a win with a king and rook. A king and two bishops is also enough to force a win, but it requires a bit more skill, even more so in the case of a king, bishop and knight. A king and two knights, or a king and one minor piece, is not enough to force a win and thus the game will be declared a draw.
Further reading:
- John Nunn: Understanding Chess move by move, Gambit 2001. A top players explains the thinking behind every single move of several master class games.
- Jeremy Silman: The Amateur's Mind: Turning Chess Misconceptions into Chess Mastery, Siles Press 1999. A chess teacher analyzes and corrects the thinking of advanced beginners.